Outer Circle - Definition and Examples - World English

The outer circle is made up of post-colonial countries in which English, though not the mother tongue, has for a significant period of time played an important role in education, governance, and popular culture. Countries in the outer circle include India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, and more than 50 other nations. Low Ee  Ling  and Adam Brown describe the outer circle as those countries in the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native settings[,] . . . where English has become institutionalized or has become part of the countrys chief institutions (English in Singapore, 2005).   The outer circle is one of the three concentric circles of World English described by linguist Braj Kachru in Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle (1985).   The labels inner, outer, and expanding  circles represent the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of the English language in diverse cultural contexts.  As discussed below, these labels remain controversial. Explanations of Outer Circle English In the Inner Circle, English spread largely because of a migration of English speakers. In time each settlement developed its own national variety. On the other hand, the spread of English in the Outer Circle has occurred largely as a result of colonization by English-speaking nations. Here, two major types of linguistic development occurred. In some countries like Nigeria and India, where under colonial powers it developed as an elite second language, only a minority of the society acquired English. However, in other countries like Barbados and Jamaica, the slave trade had a significant impact on the variety of English spoken, resulting in the development of English-based pidgins and creoles.(Sandra Lee McKay, Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches. Oxford University Press, 2002)The Outer Circle may be thought of as country contexts where English was first introduced as a colonial language for administrative purposes. . . . English is used in these countries for intra-country purposes. In addition to Outer Circle, terms frequently used to describe the manner in which English has evolved in these settings include institutionalized and nativized. In these countries, a variety of English has evolved which possesses the common core characteristics of Inner Circle varieties of English, but in addition can be distinguished from them by particular lexical, phonological, pragmatic, and morphosyntactic innovations.(Kimberly Brown, World Englishes:  To Teach or Not to Teach. World Englishes, ed. by   Kingsley Bolton and Braj B. Kachru. Routledge, 2006) Problems With the World Englishes Model Considering the history of the emancipation of various Englishes around the globe, it is obvious that the groundbreaking work emanated from and has been essentially focused on the Outer Circle. But it has been an uphill struggle. Even today, what is often termed international by Inner Circle scholars, publishers, etc. is often simply interpreted as the international spread of native-speaker Standard English (a minority variety in itself) rather than the way English has changed to meet international needs.(Barbara Seidlhofer, World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca: Two Frameworks or One? World Englishes--Problems, Properties and Prospects, ed. by Thomas Hoffmann and Lucia Siebers. John Benjamins, 2009)As a large number speakers from the Outer-Circle and Expanding-Circle countries now live in the Inner-Circle countries, even native speakers of English are increasingly exposed to World Englishes. This means revising the notion of proficiency even for the English of native speake rs. Canagarajah (2006: 233) maintains that, in a context where we have to constantly shuffle between different varieties [of English] and communities, proficiency becomes complex . . . one needs the capacity to negotiate diverse varieties to facilitate communication.(Farzad Sharifian, English as an International Language: An Overview. English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical Issues, ed. by F. Sharifian. Multilingual Matters, 2009) Also Known As: extended circle

Advanced Healthcare Treatment Over The Past 20 Years

Advanced healthcare treatment over the past 20 years This study is about the administration of treatment using advanced methods made available over the past 20 years. It will attempt to explore the three most significant include Gene therapy, Stem cell transplant and health screening, commencing with meanings, approaches; uses and case studies of each type of techniques. Gene therapy is an experimental form of treatment, where normal genes are placed into missing or defective ones in order to correct or alter genetic disorders. In other terms, it is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers into a patient s cells as a drug to treat disease (Gennady, 2015). After many attempts at modifying human DNA by nuclear gene transfer as well as insertion of human DNA in the nuclear genome, the first successful gene therapy was in 1990 where it was used to cure four-year-old Ashanti DaSilva who had Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (IDF 2013 National Conference). Since then gene therapy has been used to cure and treat serious diseases such as Chronic Granulomatus Disorder, Hemophilia, and a wide variety of Cancers, and other genetic and acquired diseases (American Society of GENE CELL THERAPHY, online). The use of genes as medicines for Cystic fibrosis (CF) consisted in transferring the normal Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene into affected epithelium cells, which produce mucus or other secretions. In recent studies a differentShow MoreRelatedAssessing the Value of Electronic Medical Records795 Words   |  3 PagesAssessing the Value of Electronic Medical Records Introduction The potential for Electronic Medical Records (EMR) to transform healthcare making it more accurate, efficient and cost-effective is significant. 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Administrative Ethics †Paper 3 Free Essays

Administrative Ethics Paper HCS/335 December 19, 2011 Administrative Ethics Paper There are many factors that are affecting our everyday lives but none as important as the ethics of healthcare. Healthcare is one of the largest personal care services provided in our civilization today. In order to provide this type of care adequate and qualified personnel must have access to personal information both medical and at times non-medical. We will write a custom essay sample on Administrative Ethics – Paper 3 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Preserving patient confidentiality has become more increasingly difficult to do. The desire to guard patient privacy is apparent with all the legal ramifications imposed by the federal and state laws. I will be discussing the ethical and legal issues of healthcare while stating the responsibilities and facts that could lead to solutions. According to â€Å"American Medical Association† (1995-2011), â€Å"The U. S. Constitution defines a physician’s legal obligation to their patient(s) by federal and state law, regulation, and by the court although access to patient information has become more accessible†(Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs). In 1996 Congress enacted the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) and was recently amended under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act ( â€Å"AmericanCollege of Healthcare Executives†, 2009). HIPAA was to put safety measures to shield a patient(s) health information and keep it private. In February of 2009 on the 17th, President Barak Obama authorized the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 with the objective to support the acceptance of electronic medical records (EMR) by physicians and medical facilities. The law symbolizes a reassurance to privacy by giving them actionable remedies in an event that their personal private medical records are misused or abused (â€Å"ResourceLibrary: The CBS Interactive Business Network†, 2002). The lack of safeguards for patients and their information is a big disadvantage because physicians, medical facilities, and patient(s) have oncerns as to whether or not their information will be protected and stay private. Health information being used electronically has increased medical access as well as transmission between health data and other physicians allowing admission to all a patient’s medical information in their network if needed. The expansion of technology in the healthcare industry has helped to give better patient care to ensure healthier and more productive people I society but the challenge comes into play with respecting and honoring a patient’s confidentiality. Doctor’s have always been obligated to keep their patient’s information private by not divulging and medical or personal information exposed by the patient or ascertained by the physician while treating the patient. According to â€Å"American Medical Association† (1995-2011), † the purpose of a physician’s ethical duty to maintain patient confidentiality is to allow the patient to feel free to make a full and frank disclosure of information to the physician with the knowledge that the physician will protect the confidentiality nature of the information disclosed† (Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs). Sustaining a patient’s medical and personal information is a legal obligation as well as the ethical sense of duty. The American College of Healthcare Executives feels that besides following HIPAA and all applicable state and federal laws, healthcare executives should also have a ethical and moral duty to respect privacy and protect the security of patients’ medical records. Doctors, nurses, and anyone that may come in contact with a patient’s records should become familiar with the laws involving the obligation to maintain confidentiality because any breach of confidentiality no matter how small can result in misappropriates, a lawsuit and/or disciplinary action. The HIPPA privacy protection in its present state is inadequate because it allows the sale of patient information to third parties without written consent even though there are consequences for it. The American Recovery Reinvestment Act has begun to stipulate some safety by making a cutoff point for use of information for promotion and fundraising and for the sale of records. According to â€Å"AmericanCollege of Healthcare Executives† (2009), â€Å"As patient advocates, executives are required to guarantee their organization acquire appropriate patient authorization to give personal information or follow the correct procedures as carefully characterized in the policies and relevant laws in such cases for when the elease of information without consent is indicated† (Health Information Confidentiality). In conclusion with all the different and new technology in society today everyone more so doctors and medical personnel are extremely cautious about relinquishing and personal patient information regardless if it is to a another doctor or family. Every physician and medical facility must make every effort to guarantee the patient’s information will remain con fidential regardless of how it is kept in a file or electronically. Technology will progress as the years get older and so will the rise on patient information being misused. Technology can improve the quality of care by all means but while it is improving care it also needs to be steps and measures taken to improve the patient’s privacy and confidentiality of their medical information. References AmericanCollege of Healthcare Executives. (2009). Retrieved from http://www. ache. org/policy/hiconf. cfm American Medical Association. (1995-2011). Retrieved from http://www. ama- assn. org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/ama-councils/council-ethical-judicial affairs. page ResourceLibrary: The CBS Interactive Business Network. (2002). Retrieved from http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_2689_131/ai_92691019/? tag=content;col1 How to cite Administrative Ethics – Paper 3, Papers